Japan          

            On a daily basis, the average American is bombarded by Japanese products:  electronics, cars, cartoons, samurai movies, and sushi.  Yet Japanese culture remains an enigma to the western mind.  It seems impenetrable. Indeed, while Japan may have  borrowed almost everything from other cultures, by virtue of the fact of its geographical location, it did not give up anything. Ideas of government, ethics, religion, and writing all came from China and Korea for example. However, everything that the Japanese adopted received a twist that transformed it into something uniquely Japanese. By studying the religious and social ideas from the ancient history of Japan up till the Tokugawa era (1600), the source and strength of this uniqueness can be found.

The modern Japanese were not the first people to live in the Japanese islands. It is not known who the first people were, but they are believed to have arrived at least 30,000 years ago.1 During this time in the Paleolithic era, Japan was attached to the mainland via many land bridges. Pottery first appeared in the Japanese islands around 13,000 B.C.2 From that time, up to the arrival of the first modern day Japanese is called the Jomon period. The peoples that lived during the Jomon period were primary hunters and gatherers. They ate everything from boar and deer, to frogs and wolves. The only domesticated animal they had was dogs. Descendents of the peoples that lived during this era are still alive today in parts of Japan. They call themselves the Ainu.

            In 300 B.C. the first groups of modern day Japanese people called Yayoi arrived.3 Unlike the people they conquered, the Japanese were taller with more narrow faces. Historians believe that the Japanese are descended from a variety of different peoples who settled the islands.4 As more people began to settle the Japanese islands, the limited resources of agriculture and metal ore were bitterly fought over. This and an increase in trade would lead to class stratification. The constant warfare between tribes, would lead to the emergence of new elites.  These elites joined forces to formed kingdoms. Around 200 B.C., when the Japanese were first learning to smelt metal, Confucius arose in China to challenge the existing order. 5

            Rice was the most important staple of the Japanese diet. It was first cultivated in Japan during the 3rd century B.C. 6 Besides being an important staple, rice also helped shape the cultural attitudes of the people. Rice was the main offering to the gods, taxes were levied in rice, and many of the holidays revolved around the harvest cycle. The status of the Samurai was measured in the annual allotment of his rice. The reason rice was so important to the Japanese, was simply that it was the most important commodity they had. In the Bible, Abraham’s wealth was measured in his livestock, which was the main source of food in the Middle East (the Latin pecunia meaning 'money' is derived from pecus meaning cattle). 

            In order to understand the society of the ancient Japanese it is important to know the myths of their origins. The story goes that in heaven, two gods named Izanagi and Izanami came into existence. Izangi dipped his spear into the earth, which was only water at the time. The drops of water that came out of that dip, turned into the islands of Japan. The gods began to populate here. Later on Izanami is burned to death when she gives birth to the god of fire. Her husband Izangi goes to the land of the dead to save her, but Izanami  refuses to leave, when she sees her maggot ridden body. When Izangi returns from the other world he cleanses himself, and the gods Amaterasu (Light of Heaven/Sun God) and Susano-o(Wild Male) are born in the process. Amaterasu is given the heavens while Susano-o is given the sea to rule. However Susano-o disobeys his father and is banished. Before going into exile, he convinces Amaterasu to have children. Amaterasu declines his offer and fleas to a cave, thus leaving the world in darkness. The other deities try to lure her out by hanging a mirror and a jeweled necklace in a tree. Amaterasu falls for the trick and is grabbed by Susano-o. Later Susano-o slays a monster that eats children and finds a sword in the monster’s tail. He gives his sister the sword for the remorse he caused her. Today the Three Sacred Treasures are found in three different locations in Japan. The sword is in the Shinto shrine at Atsuta, the mirror is placed at another shrine at Ise, and the jewels are in the imperial palace.  Susano-o’s son, Okuninushi, becomes a hero later but his jealous father and brother kill him. Okuninushi’s son is told by Amaterasu to let her children rule the land. Her great grandson Jimmu  became the first ruler of Japan, according to legend. 7 

Myths like these reveal the early rivalry  that existed between  the imperial family and Izumo clan (respresented by Susano-o), which ended with the former in power. As history, the myth is unreliable, because it was created for political reasons by the Emperor Jimmu to legitimize his house. 8 

More importantly, the myths reveal the attitude of the culture. Parents kill their children and brother slays brother. The gods act as harshly as the humans do. There is no moral judgment made in the myths. For example, Susano-o is removed from power by the other gods as being disruptive, but he is not condemned for it. This was a culture comparable to that of the Sumerians. They were both peoples governed by harsh realities. They had to struggle to survive, and faced unexpected disasters all the time due to their geographic conditions. The behavior of the gods and people in the myths were accepted according to situations, not principles.

 

The Japanese people were characterized as a warlike culture. Japan was ridden with strife and division starting from the very day people arrived.  They had to struggle hard to survive even if it meant killing other people. The sword was both a weapon and a symbol of manhood. Unfortunately a society that lives in constant warfare sees the military aspects of life carry into the other aspects of life. In Japan, people had to make choices according to the situations they faced, rather then according to universal ethics. Some people today still believe that this attitude exhibits itself in Japanese business practices. 

Although the people of Japan believed themselves to be descended from the gods, it was the imperial clan of the Japanese emperor who was believed to be descended directly from the god Amaterasu. The claim of royal divinity was not unique to Japan however.  The Egyptian and Sumerian kings were also believed to be descended from the gods. Many other cultures also believed their kings to be representative of the gods on earth. 

            The myth of the emperor’s divine origin was important, because it helped unify Japan. The geography of Japan is made up of islands filled with little valleys and broken terrain surrounded by mountains and peaks. Japan’s topography resembles that of Scotland and the Greek isles. Since they arrived, the Japanese were divided into clans that were always at war with each other. The history of Japan is reminiscent of that of the Greek city states and the Scottish clans.  This was despite the fact the emperor was recognized by all the lords that ruled Japan. Often the emperor served as a figure head with real power vested in a shogun (generalissimo.) True unity would not reach Japan till the Tokugawa regime was established in the 17th century. 

            The religion of the ancient Japanese people was Shintoism(way of the Gods.) It was originally a set of shaman practices and beliefs. The Japanese believed that the world had different powers called kami. These powers could be harnessed and controlled for the benefits of people. Kami existed in the clouds, animals, rivers, and other objects. It would be a mistake to consider all these kami forces gods, because they were not conscious beings.  Kami was like an all pervading force that connected the universe together. Kami is more comparable to the concept of Brahman in Hinduism, more so then “god” in the western sense. 

Shintoism did not become a distinct religion until the advent of Buddhism in Japan.9 When Buddhism appeared with it’s texts, rituals and priests, Shintoism was forced to compete and add anything it lacked. However, instead of turning against each other, the two religions blended together. An agreement was reached in which kami became incorporated into Buddhist temples. The Shinto god of war, Hachiman, for example, became a bodhisattva. 

            There is an important distinction to make between the arrival of Buddhism in China and Japan. When Buddhism and other philosophies made their way through China, they did so with the help of intellectuals who challenged the existing order of things. In sharp contrast, Buddhism and other ideas were brought to Japan by the ruling classes as a way to benefit from Chinese culture. Buddhism was brought to Japan in the 6th century C.E. as a court gift from Korea.10 The Japanese adopted it as a government plan for advancement and protection. This is in sharp contrast to China where Buddhism spread for religious reasons. At first Buddhism was adopted as a test by the Emperor Kimmei to see if the gods would like it. Unfortunately, natural disasters occurred during his reign so all the Buddhist images were thrown into the rivers. Later, the Emperor Yomei embraced Buddhism to cure his ills, but it failed him.11 In the 13th  century, the Hojo Regency, made use of Buddhism.

            When the Japanese adopted a tradition from somewhere else they didn’t swallow it whole. They  took it apart and remolded it according to their culture and core values. Buddhism and its philosophy of understanding reality is a good example. According to Chinese Buddhism what one experiences is the One Buddha reality. For example, the real nature of dried grass is Buddha. There is no ghostly thing behind the grass according to the Chinese take on Buddhism. If a person really understood grass he was able to see it’s Buddha nature. But the Japanese Buddhists took it one step further and said, “Buddha is nothing but dried grass.” In that statement there seems to be no metaphysical world behind appearances but only manifestation of the senses. 12 

            The Japanese did not misinterpret Buddhism; the Japanese understood things according to their own cultural ideas. The Japanese inherited a view of reality shaped by their traditions of shamanism. They believed that what made their objects of worship unique, was not that they were human like deities, but rather that those objects could harness power. 13 

            It is false to say that the Japanese didn’t produce any metaphysical truths like that of western and Indian philosophies. The Swiss religious scholar Frithjof Schuon pointed out, that the criterion for metaphysical truth lies in the quality and effectiveness of it’s symbolism, as opposed to the complexity of it’s expression.  It can be argued that the Japanese and Chinese are people of vision, while westerners are people of hearing and semantics. 14          

            Zen Buddhism was the unique form of the religion as practiced in Japan.15 Zen was developed as a meditative discipline to obtain enlightenment (Buddhahood) In order to do obtain enlightenment a puzzle was given to students to solve. The famous questions like “what is the sound of one hand clapping? “ is a puzzle (koan) The answer to the puzzle was something that could not be solved by reason or words, but by instinct. The goal was to free the mind of pre-conceived notions, that people were conditioned with by society. Enlightenment in Zen Buddhism meant seeing reality as it is, and not as shaped by human intellect. The skill of zen thought, could be seen in everything from painting, sword fighting, and even the famous tea ceremony. 

Although Zen came to Japan many years earlier, it was made popular by a monk named Eisai. In the 7th century C.E., Eisai helped establish Zen as an independent sect. 16 Zen became so popular among the common people that it was known  as “populist Buddhism.”17  In the 13th century Zen Buddhism was adopted by the new rulers of Japan, the Hojo regency. The Hojo regency saw Zen as an important technique to discipline their warriors. Under the patronage of the Hojo regent Tokiyori (1227-1263), many Zen monasteries were built for the specific purpose of training warriors. 18 A new class, the warrior aristocracy shaped the culture and mind set of Japan, for the next 700 years. 

The reason why the rulers of Japan found the practice of Zen good for their warriors was two-fold. First, it was found to help the warrior act more swiftly.  An effective fighter was believed to act on instinct, rather than thought.  Thinking was what held the warrior back and made him vulnerable for attacks. Also Zen Buddhism was supposed to help the warrior over come the fear of death. It was believed that a person who reached Buddhahood would see life in a new light, free from the contradictions of life and death. A zen disciplined person was one who was able to focus on the moment and not the past or future. 

The Japanese warrior was called Bushi and the code he followed was that of Bushido, or way of the warrior. The new class of warriors became known later as the Samurai, implying professional armed service to someone. From the Tale of the Heike, (Heike Monogatar)i, a picture was made of the samurai, that shows gallant and well trained horse riders, who acted respectful to their superiors. 19 Bushido is reminiscent of the code of Chivalry, the knights used in Europe. The knights were expected to act with honor and be courteous to women.

Though there were different classes of warriors such as foot soldiers, Calvary, and archers, they all had one thing in common. They all carried swords. The sword was the symbol of a warrior’s manhood and what made him a warrior. The sword was the symbol of the Japanese spirit. 20 

Sword making probably originated in China or Korea, and first reached Japan in the 9th century Heian period. It reached its climax in the 14th century. 21 The early sword smiths were priests of the Tendai Buddhist sects.  They found it as a good aesthetic practice because of its demanding tasks. 22

Sword making became so important, its history became shrouded by religious myths. The sword smith was both a shaman and alchemist. He was the link between the other worlds.  He possessed a secret knowledge that only could be transferred by initiation to his sons.  The sword was termed a “kami vessel.” 23

The process of making a sword was special. It was the technique and not the component materials of the Japanese sword that gave them their superiority. The sword smith went through a process of smelting chunks of metal into steel by repeated tempering, hammerings, and folding. The repeated steps helped turn the iron into a single steel substance. At the end of the process, the desired result was a sword with two types of metal. Hard steel was needed for the cutting edge, and a softer core was needed to keep the blade from snapping. 24 

The Japanese saw their first encounter with fire arms in 1543, when the Portuguese arrived. Sword smiths were instantly turned into gunsmiths.25  Even after muskets were taken up by professional armies, musketeers still carried swords. In 1584 something mysterious happened that would not be repeated anywhere else in the world. Two powerful musket equipped armies lined up to fight each other. Yet no side made an offensive attack. The battle ended in an alliance! Why did that happen? 

The first thing to remember is that Japan was a fierce nation and too far from mainland China to fear invasion. The second reason for that strange scenario was the attitude of the samurai themselves towards the weapons. The Japanese had inherited a culture rich in aesthetic practices: 

 “The use of the sword required a delicate coordination of body strength, suppleness, and rhythm as well as mental faculties. But only very minimal skills of any sort were necessary for the loading, pointing, and firing of a gun” 26 Winston King, Zen and the Way of the Sword (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 27-29.

 

            The gun was found to be degrading to the Japanese spirit.  Compared to the skill it took to handle a sword, a gun was child’s play. After the 1583 event the use of fire arms declined, and disappeared from Japan all together. The power that the gun possessed was not considered as powerful as that of the sword. Not until the Meji government was established 300 years later, would Japan use fire arms again, and ban the carrying of swords. After much fighting an alliance was reached that led to unity of Japan.27 That unity helped pave the way for the 300 year Tokugawa era which began in the early 16th century, and was an important landmark in Japanese history.          

 The ancient history of Japan contains parallels to other nation’s histories as well as things unique to it’s own.  The Japanese had firm cultural traditions that would not be lost despite the passage of time and external influences. They managed to keep their belief systems alive despite outside influences and absorption of new belief systems.  Rather than being changed by the foreign beliefs, these beliefs were adjusted to fit into the Japanese mold.  They also managed to keep their proud and unique fighting skills alive despite the introduction of techniques other people thought were superior. Many other peoples have managed to keep their traditions alive despite being forced to bear the hardest conditions, but few can claim the ability to successfully incorporate foreign traditions and turn them into their own.

 

 

Footnotes 

1.             Kenneth Henshall, A History of Japan.

(New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001), 3.

 

2. Henshall, 5.

 

3. Henshall, 8.

 

4. Henshall, 8.

 

5.             Gene Blocker and Christopher L. Starling, Japanese Philosophy

(State University of New York Press, 2001),  18.

 

6.             Daniel Sosnoski, Introduction to Japanese Culture.

(Ruthland: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1996), 56.

 

7.             Kenneth Henshall, A History of Japan.

(New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001), 1.

 

8. Henshall, 2.

 

9.             Gene Blocker and Christopher L. Starling, Japanese Philosophy

(State University of New York Press, 2001),  36.

 

 

10.        Kenneth Henshall, A History of Japan.

(New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001), 13.

 

 

11. Henshall, 13.

 

12.           Gene Blocker and Christopher L. Starling, Japanese Philosophy

(State University of New York Press, 2001),  30.

 

13. Gene and Starling, 30.

 

14.           Frithjof Schuon and Annemarrie Schimmel, Understanding Islam.

(Bloomington: World Wisdom Books, 1998), 156.

 

15.  Zen Buddhaism was a development of a Chinese sect of Buddhaism called Ch'an. The word Ch'an is a chinese rendering of the sanskrit word for meditation, dhyana.

 

16.            Winston King, Zen and the Way of the Sword (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 27-29.

 

17.   King, 29.

 

18.  King, 30.

 

19.  King, 46.

 

20.  King, 61.

 

21.  King, 61.

 

22.  King, 71.

 

23.  King, 72.

 

24.  King, 82.

 

25.  King, 89.

 

26.  King,  93.

 

27.  King 93.